1. Introduction
There are many common tasks in Linux that we may want to consider running in parallel, such as:
- Downloading a large number of files
- Encoding/decoding a large number of images on a machine with multiple CPU cores
- Making a computation with many different parameters and storing the results
Of course, we can accomplish all these tasks without using parallelization. But if we process each file, connection, or computation in several parallel processes, we can have a great advantage in terms of speed. Luckily, there are multiple powerful command-line tools for parallelization in Linux systems that can help us achieve this.
In this tutorial, we’re going to see how to use the Bash ampersand & operator, xargs, and GNU parallel to achieve parallelization on the Linux command line.
2. A Sample Task
First, let’s create a simple script that we’ll run in parallel.
Let’s create a file named ./process with contents:
#!/bin/bash
echo "started processing $*.."
sleep $((2 + RANDOM % 3)); echo finished processing "$*";
This script will fake an actual process that takes 2 to 5 seconds to complete. Let’s make it executable to be able to use it:
$ chmod +x ./process
3. Using &
As a basic way to run commands in parallel, we can use the built-in Bash ampersand & operator to run a command asynchronously so that the shell doesn’t wait for the current command to complete before moving on to the next one:
$ ./process 1 &
$ ./process 2 &
This will create two processes that will start at essentially the same instant and run in parallel. Because we’ve introduced random sleep times in our example script, the output may look like this:
[1] 25254
[2] 25255
started processing 1..
started processing 2..
finished processing 2
finished processing 1
[1]- Done ./process 1
[2]+ Done ./process 2
Clearly, we can use this approach to run many parallel processes. But if we have many tasks – for example, a hundred images to be converted – we wouldn’t want to start all hundred tasks at once, but instead, process them in batches to utilize our cores better. To achieve this, we need to wait for some tasks to complete before starting others.
3.1. Using wait with &
The wait command will, by default, wait for all child processes to exit. So, using the wait command, we can run batches of operations:
$ echo "starting batch 1.."
$ ./process 1.jpg &
$ ./process 2.jpg &
$ ./process 3.jpg &
$ wait
$ echo "starting batch 2.."
$ ./process 4.jpg &
$ ./process 5.jpg &
$ ./process 6.jpg &
$ wait
$ echo "finished"
However, there’s one big downside to this approach. To utilize our CPU cores effectively, we’d want a new process to start as soon as a running process ends. But with this solution, we wouldn’t start new processes until all the tasks in the previous batch were completed. To overcome this limitation, we can use xargs.
4. Using xargs
xargs is a command-line tool that helps us run commands with arguments parsed from standard input. It can also parallelize our tasks for us.
Let’s try the previous input we used with &, but this time with xargs:
$ echo '1.jpg 2.jpg 3.jpg 4.jpg 5.jpg 6.jpg' | xargs -n 1 -P 3 ./process
started processing 1.jpg..
started processing 2.jpg..
started processing 3.jpg..
finished processing 1.jpg
finished processing 2.jpg
started processing 4.jpg..
started processing 5.jpg..
finished processing 3.jpg
started processing 6.jpg..
finished processing 5.jpg
finished processing 4.jpg
finished processing 6.jpg
xargs immediately creates the next process once a process is completed. We specify the number of arguments per call using the -n argument and the number of parallel tasks using the -P argument.
4.1. Using Replacement
If the executable we’re using requires us to put the arguments to some specific place rather than appending them directly after the executable name, we can use replacement.
Let’s try it:
$ args="1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6"
$ echo -e $args | xargs -I "{}" -P 2 ./process {}.jpg
started processing 1.jpg..
started processing 2.jpg..
finished processing 2.jpg
started processing 3.jpg..
finished processing 1.jpg
started processing 4.jpg..
finished processing 3.jpg
started processing 5.jpg..
finished processing 5.jpg
started processing 6.jpg..
finished processing 4.jpg
finished processing 6.jpg
4.2. Handling Arguments With Newlines
If the arguments we want to use with our processes include newline characters, we can use a null character (\0) delimited input stream. For example, with the find command, we can set the output to be null-delimited instead of newline-delimited by using the -print0 flag:
$ find . -print0 | xargs -0 -n 2 -P 2 ./process
As the arguments are now null-delimited, we can be sure that newline characters in the input will be preserved.
5. Using GNU parallel
GNU parallel is one of the most advanced command-line tools available for running parallel tasks. It has many features, including the ability to distribute and run tasks remotely on multiple machines using ssh.
5.1. Basic Usage
The basic usage of parallel is very similar to xargs. Actually, for simple cases, we can use it interchangeably with xargs.
Let’s try:
$ args="1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6"
$ echo -e $args | parallel --ungroup --jobs 3 ./process
started processing 1..
started processing 2..
started processing 3..
finished processing 1
finished processing 2
finished processing 3
started processing 4..
started processing 5..
started processing 6..
finished processing 5
finished processing 4
finished processing 6
The –jobs argument is the same as the xargs command’s -P argument, which determines the maximum number of parallel jobs to be running at the same time.
By default, parallel will print the output of a process only after it is finished. The –ungroup flag disables this functionality. We can use it to see the actual execution order of commands as they are running.
We can supply the input arguments also via the command line. Let’s try running it to get the same output as above:
$ parallel --ungroup --jobs 3 ./process ::: 1 2 3 4 5 6
when supplying command-line arguments, we can use ::: (three colons) to supply arguments directly, and :::: (four colons) to supply arguments from a file.
Let’s see an example that supplies input from a file:
$ args="1\n2\n3\n4\n5\n6"
$ echo -e $args > input.txt
$ parallel --ungroup --jobs 3 ./process :::: input.txt
The output would be similar to the above.
5.2. Running Combinations of Multiple Sources
5.3. Linking Sources
If instead of running for every possible combination, we want to “link” them after one another, we would use the –link flag. Let’s try it with two different input sources:
$ parallel --link --ungroup ./process ::: 1 2 3 ::: 1 2 3
started processing 1 1..
started processing 2 2..
started processing 3 3..
finished processing 1 1
finished processing 3 3
finished processing 2 2
5.4. Replacement Strings
Like in xargs, we can use replacement strings in parallel. The default replacement string is {}.
Let’s try it with a prefix:
$ parallel --ungroup ./process item-{} ::: 1 2 3
started processing item-1..
started processing item-2..
started processing item-3..
finished processing item-1
finished processing item-2
finished processing item-3
Other replacement strings do different kinds of manipulations on the input. For example, {.} will remove the extension from the argument:
$ parallel --ungroup ./process {.} ::: 1.jpg 2.jpg 3.jpg
started processing 1..
started processing 2..
started processing 3..
finished processing 2
finished processing 1
finished processing 3
If we want to use multiple different variables for each command, we can also do this using special replacement strings:
$ parallel --ungroup --link ./process {1}.jpg {2}.jpg {3}.jpg ::: 1 2 3 ::: 4 5 6 ::: 7 8 9
started processing 1.jpg 4.jpg 7.jpg..
started processing 2.jpg 5.jpg 8.jpg..
started processing 3.jpg 6.jpg 9.jpg..
finished processing 1.jpg 4.jpg 7.jpg
finished processing 2.jpg 5.jpg 8.jpg
finished processing 3.jpg 6.jpg 9.jpg
There are also many more options for replacement strings that can be found in the parallel tutorial.
5.5. Reading Input From File Columns
We can read the input from different columns of a text file. Let’s try it with a tab-separated text file:
$ args="1\t4\n2\t5\n3\t6"
$ echo -e $args > input_cols.txt
$ parallel --colsep '\t' --ungroup ./process [{1}] [{2}] :::: input_cols.txt
started processing [1] [4]..
started processing [2] [5]..
started processing [3] [6]..
finished processing [2] [5]
finished processing [3] [6]
finished processing [1] [4]
5.6. Saving Output
We can save the output of each process into a file by using the –files flag:
$ parallel --files --link ./process ::: 1 2 3 ::: 1 2 3
/tmp/parnqFzp.par
/tmp/parSv0nW.par
/tmp/parGyNbz.par
This will create *.par files with the output of our commands as the content.
If we want to have a more friendly directory structure, we can use the –results and –header arguments to write the results to a folder in a hierarchy.
Let’s run a command to generate the directory tree:
$ parallel --results outdir --link ./process ::: a b c ::: d e f
Now, let’s check the output using the tree command:
outdir
└── 1
├── a
│ └── 2
│ └── d
│ ├── seq
│ ├── stderr
│ └── stdout
├── b
│ └── 2
│ └── e
│ ├── seq
│ ├── stderr
│ └── stdout
└── c
└── 2
└── f
├── seq
├── stderr
└── stdout
parallel generates the directory structure based on argument positions and values.
5.7. Progress Information
We can also have parallel show an estimate of the remaining time based on current task runs:
$ parallel --eta --colsep '\t' --ungroup ./process [{1}] [{2}] :::: input_cols.txt
started processing [1] [4]..
started processing [2] [5]..
Computers / CPU cores / Max jobs to run
1:local / 8 / 3
started processing [3] [6]..
Computer:jobs running/jobs completed/%of started jobs/Average seconds to complete
ETA: 0s Left: 3 AVG: 0.00s local:3/0/100%/0.0s finished processing [1] [4]
ETA: 0s Left: 2 AVG: 0.00s local:2/1/100%/3.0s finished processing [2] [5]
ETA: 0s Left: 2 AVG: 0.00s local:2/1/100%/3.0s finished processing [3] [6]
ETA: 0s Left: 1 AVG: 0.00s local:1/2/100%/1.5s
ETA: 0s Left: 0 AVG: 0.00s local:0/3/100%/1.0s
5.8. Running Parallel Tasks on Remote Machines
We can run our parallel tasks on remote machines using parallel through ssh.
Let’s assume we have access to host1 and host2 using our username and ssh keys that are added to our system. Let’s try it:
$ parallel -S host1 -S host2 echo ::: running on remote hosts
running
on
remote
hosts
The hosts that will run each command and the order of execution will change randomly with every run.
6. Conclusion
In this article, we learned how to use the Bash ampersand & operator, xargs, and GNU parallel to parallelize our tasks on the command line.